CRISPR AND CONSENT: LEGAL STANDARDS AND ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN HUMAN ENHANCEMENT
Volume 4Issue I Year 2025
Shahnawaz Ahmad
Assistant Professor, Crescent School of Law, B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science & Technology, Chennai
shahnawaz@crescent.education
Prof. (Dr) Mini S
Advisor (Law), Competition Commission of India, Professor, National University of Advanced Legal Studies (NUALS), Kochi
mini.s@nuals.ac.in
Table of Contents
Shahnawaz Ahmad
Assistant Professor, Crescent School of Law, B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science & Technology, Chennai
shahnawaz@crescent.education
Prof. (Dr) Mini S
Advisor (Law), Competition Commission of India, Professor, National University of Advanced Legal Studies (NUALS), Kochi
mini.s@nuals.ac.in
CRISPR- Human Enhancement- Consent- Indian Law- Bioethics
1. CRISPR is Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. It refers to a naturally occurring system found in bacteria, which scientists have adapted into a powerful gene-editing tool. Paired with the Cas9 protein (CRISPR-associated protein 9), it allows precise cutting and editing of DNA, revolutionizing fields like medicine and biotechnology.
2. Jennifer Doudna & Emmanuelle Charpentier, The New Frontier of Genome Engineering with CRISPR-Cas9, 346 SCIENCE 1258096 (2014).
3. F. Zhang et al., CRISPR Genome Editing: A Technical Review, 13 NATURE REV. GENETICS 1 (2022).
4. Julian Savulescu, The Ethics of Human Enhancement, 18 J. MED. ETHICS 1 (2015).
5. Samira Kohli v. Dr. Prabha Manchanda, (2008) 2 SCC 1,
6. STAT News, U.S. CRISPR Embryo Trials Begin (Mar. 15, 2024).
7. Indian Council of Med. Research, National Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research 78 (2017).
8. Nature News, Chinese Scientist Sentenced for Creating Gene-Edited Babies (Dec. 30, 2019),
9. Supra note 5
10. Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India, (2017) 10 SCC 1.
11. Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug v. Union of India, (2011) 4 SCC 454,
12. Suchita Srivastava v. Chandigarh Admin., (2009) 9 SCC 1 (India).
13. Supra note 5
14. Id
15. D. J. H. Mathews et al., CRISPR Off-Target Effects, 25 NATURE BIOTECH. 1 (2023).
16. Id
17. Indian Med. Assn v. V.P. Shantha, (1995) 6 SCC 651
18. Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, No. 23 of 1940 (India).
19. Indian Council of Med. Research, supra note 7, at 79.
20. Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, 2(t) (India).
21. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990, c. 37 (UK).
22. The Hindu, DIY CRISPR Kits Raise Alarm (Jan. 20, 2025).
23. Nature News, He Jiankui Sentenced for CRISPR Babies (Dec. 30, 2019).
24. Indian Council of Medical Research, National Guidelines for Gene Therapy Product Development and Clinical Trials (2020).
25. Supra note 8.
26. Farahany, Nita. The Ethics of an Enhancement Arms Race. Journal of Law and the Biosciences (2021).
27. Baylis, Franoise. The Ethics of Human Genome Editing. Nature Reviews Genetics (2019).
28. Samira Kohli v. Dr. Prabha Manchanda, (2008) 2 SCC 1.
29. UNESCO, Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights, 2005.
30. WHO, Equity and Access to Gene Editing Technologies: A Global Perspective, Report (2024).
31. Budhan Choudhry v. State of Bihar, AIR 1955 SC 191.
32. Dickenson, Donna. Property in the Body: Feminist Perspectives (2007).
33. STAT News, Supra note 6
34. Id
35. F. Zhang et al., CRISPR Genome Editing: A Technical Review, 13 NATURE REV. GENETICS 1, 4 (2022).
36. Nature News, Supra note 23.
37. UNESCO, Declaration on Human Genetic Rights 6.
38. IIT Bombay, CRISPR Plant Resilience Project (2024).
39. Indian Council of Med. Research, Sickle-Cell Trial Update (Jan. 2025).
40. The Times of India, Bengaluru Labs Eye CRISPR Enhancements (Mar. 10, 2025).
41. Supra note 18
42. Supra note 20
43. The Hindu, Supra note 22.
44. Doudna & Charpentier, The New Frontier of Genome Engineering, 346 SCIENCE 1258096 (2014).
45. STAT News, supra note 31.
46. Supra note 15
47. Supra note 5
48. Nature News, supra note 34.
49. The Times of India, supra note 38.
50. Supra note 10.
51. Supra note 21, c. 37, 3 (UK).
52. Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, art. 19(1) (2021).
53. CAL. CIV. CODE 1798.121 (2024).
54. UNESCO, supra note 35, at 8.
55. Indian Council of Med. Research, National Ethical Guidelines 79 (2017).
56. India Biotech Summit Report (Feb. 2025).
57. Embryo Protection Act, Dec. 13, 1990, BGBl. I S. 2746 (Ger.).
58. Indian Council of Med. Research, supra note 39.
59. Zhang et al., supra note 35, at 6.
60. The Hindu, AIIMS Targets SCD Cure (June 19, 2024); Times of India, Supra note 40.
61. Supra note 8, (2017) 10 SCC 1 (India); Supra note 5; Supra note 20, 2(t) (India).
62. Supra note 39
63. UNESCO, Supra note 37; Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, art. 19(1) (2021).
64. Supra note 20, 7 (India).
65. Supra note 46
66. Supra note 28
67. Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, supra note 4.
68. Supra note 35
69. Supra note 55
70. Embryo Protection Act, Supra note 57.
71. Inspired by Regulation (EU) 2016/679, General Data Protection Regulation, art. 35 (2016).
72. Id
73. Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, (1997) 6 SCC 241 (India).
74. Supra note 8, see also Selvi v. State of Karnataka, (2010) 7 SCC 263, 225 (India).
75. IIT Bombay, CRISPR Plant Resilience Project (2024).
76. UNESCO, supra note 61.
77. CAL. CIV. CODE 1798.121 (2024); Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, supra note 61.
78. Indian Council of Med. Research, supra note 39.
79. World Health Org., Gene Editing Access Report 12 (2024).
80. Supra note 31.
81.
References
1. CRISPR is Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. It refers to a naturally occurring system found in bacteria, which scientists have adapted into a powerful gene-editing tool. Paired with the Cas9 protein (CRISPR-associated protein 9), it allows precise cutting and editing of DNA, revolutionizing fields like medicine and biotechnology.
2. Jennifer Doudna & Emmanuelle Charpentier, The New Frontier of Genome Engineering with CRISPR-Cas9, 346 SCIENCE 1258096 (2014).
3. F. Zhang et al., CRISPR Genome Editing: A Technical Review, 13 NATURE REV. GENETICS 1 (2022).
4. Julian Savulescu, The Ethics of Human Enhancement, 18 J. MED. ETHICS 1 (2015).
5. Samira Kohli v. Dr. Prabha Manchanda, (2008) 2 SCC 1,
6. STAT News, U.S. CRISPR Embryo Trials Begin (Mar. 15, 2024).
7. Indian Council of Med. Research, National Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research 78 (2017).
8. Nature News, Chinese Scientist Sentenced for Creating Gene-Edited Babies (Dec. 30, 2019),
9. Supra note 5
10. Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India, (2017) 10 SCC 1.
11. Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug v. Union of India, (2011) 4 SCC 454,
12. Suchita Srivastava v. Chandigarh Admin., (2009) 9 SCC 1 (India).
13. Supra note 5
14. Id
15. D. J. H. Mathews et al., CRISPR Off-Target Effects, 25 NATURE BIOTECH. 1 (2023).
16. Id
17. Indian Med. Assn v. V.P. Shantha, (1995) 6 SCC 651
18. Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, No. 23 of 1940 (India).
19. Indian Council of Med. Research, supra note 7, at 79.
20. Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, 2(t) (India).
21. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990, c. 37 (UK).
22. The Hindu, DIY CRISPR Kits Raise Alarm (Jan. 20, 2025).
23. Nature News, He Jiankui Sentenced for CRISPR Babies (Dec. 30, 2019).
24. Indian Council of Medical Research, National Guidelines for Gene Therapy Product Development and Clinical Trials (2020).
25. Supra note 8.
26. Farahany, Nita. The Ethics of an Enhancement Arms Race. Journal of Law and the Biosciences (2021).
27. Baylis, Franoise. The Ethics of Human Genome Editing. Nature Reviews Genetics (2019).
28. Samira Kohli v. Dr. Prabha Manchanda, (2008) 2 SCC 1.
29. UNESCO, Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights, 2005.
30. WHO, Equity and Access to Gene Editing Technologies: A Global Perspective, Report (2024).
31. Budhan Choudhry v. State of Bihar, AIR 1955 SC 191.
32. Dickenson, Donna. Property in the Body: Feminist Perspectives (2007).
33. STAT News, Supra note 6
34. Id
35. F. Zhang et al., CRISPR Genome Editing: A Technical Review, 13 NATURE REV. GENETICS 1, 4 (2022).
36. Nature News, Supra note 23.
37. UNESCO, Declaration on Human Genetic Rights 6.
38. IIT Bombay, CRISPR Plant Resilience Project (2024).
39. Indian Council of Med. Research, Sickle-Cell Trial Update (Jan. 2025).
40. The Times of India, Bengaluru Labs Eye CRISPR Enhancements (Mar. 10, 2025).
41. Supra note 18
42. Supra note 20
43. The Hindu, Supra note 22.
44. Doudna & Charpentier, The New Frontier of Genome Engineering, 346 SCIENCE 1258096 (2014).
45. STAT News, supra note 31.
46. Supra note 15
47. Supra note 5
48. Nature News, supra note 34.
49. The Times of India, supra note 38.
50. Supra note 10.
51. Supra note 21, c. 37, 3 (UK).
52. Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, art. 19(1) (2021).
53. CAL. CIV. CODE 1798.121 (2024).
54. UNESCO, supra note 35, at 8.
55. Indian Council of Med. Research, National Ethical Guidelines 79 (2017).
56. India Biotech Summit Report (Feb. 2025).
57. Embryo Protection Act, Dec. 13, 1990, BGBl. I S. 2746 (Ger.).
58. Indian Council of Med. Research, supra note 39.
59. Zhang et al., supra note 35, at 6.
60. The Hindu, AIIMS Targets SCD Cure (June 19, 2024); Times of India, Supra note 40.
61. Supra note 8, (2017) 10 SCC 1 (India); Supra note 5; Supra note 20, 2(t) (India).
62. Supra note 39
63. UNESCO, Supra note 37; Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, art. 19(1) (2021).
64. Supra note 20, 7 (India).
65. Supra note 46
66. Supra note 28
67. Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, supra note 4.
68. Supra note 35
69. Supra note 55
70. Embryo Protection Act, Supra note 57.
71. Inspired by Regulation (EU) 2016/679, General Data Protection Regulation, art. 35 (2016).
72. Id
73. Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, (1997) 6 SCC 241 (India).
74. Supra note 8, see also Selvi v. State of Karnataka, (2010) 7 SCC 263, 225 (India).
75. IIT Bombay, CRISPR Plant Resilience Project (2024).
76. UNESCO, supra note 61.
77. CAL. CIV. CODE 1798.121 (2024); Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Chile, supra note 61.
78. Indian Council of Med. Research, supra note 39.
79. World Health Org., Gene Editing Access Report 12 (2024).
80. Supra note 31.
81.